Cognitive Psychology
This approach is all about how we THINK.
Attempting to explain, behaviour by looking at our perception, language, attention and memory.
Computer and computer models are often used to explain how we think and behave. Humans are treated as information processors (computers) and behaviour is explained in terms of information processing. Cognitive psychology is sometimes called the information processing approach.
There are limitations, research often carried out in artificial situations and the role of emotion and influence from others is often ignored and so often the research is viewed as not valid.
Another criticism is that it fails to take into account individual differences and makes assumptions that every person processes information in exactly the same way.
People see similarities within the way in which computers and humans make sense of information.
The brain is described as a processor, it has data input into it and output from it. Some parts of the brain form networks, other parts work in serial or in parallel.
Cognitive psychologists use computers to create computational models of the human mind.
Attempting to explain, behaviour by looking at our perception, language, attention and memory.
Computer and computer models are often used to explain how we think and behave. Humans are treated as information processors (computers) and behaviour is explained in terms of information processing. Cognitive psychology is sometimes called the information processing approach.
There are limitations, research often carried out in artificial situations and the role of emotion and influence from others is often ignored and so often the research is viewed as not valid.
Another criticism is that it fails to take into account individual differences and makes assumptions that every person processes information in exactly the same way.
People see similarities within the way in which computers and humans make sense of information.
The brain is described as a processor, it has data input into it and output from it. Some parts of the brain form networks, other parts work in serial or in parallel.
Cognitive psychologists use computers to create computational models of the human mind.
Main Research Methods
You must consider Ecological Validity- the measure of how much the result of an experiment reflects what would happen in natural settings. If a result has low ecological validity it may mean that it works perfectly well in the lab but not in a real life setting.
Laboratory Experiments- scientific and reliable as it is possible to have great control over variables in this setting. Fails to tell us much about the real word, low ecological validity.
Field Experiments- take place within a natural situation and have more ecological validity, there is less control of other variables.
Natural Experiments - making observations of a naturally occurring situation. The experiment has little control of the variables and participants cannot be randomly assigned to conditions. High ecological validity but not reliable, as uncontrolled variables can affect the results.
Brain Imaging- can be carried out during a cognitive task, i.e. MRI scans have been used to show the blood flow in different brain areas for different types of memory tasks.
Case Studies
Milner et al (1957) case study of HM, a patient with severe epilepsy, his seizures were based in a brain structure called the hippocampus. Doctors decided in 1953 to surgically remove part of the brain from this area. The operation reduced seizures, but led to him suffering memory loss. Still able to form short term memories but unable to form new long term memories. He moved house and had difficulty remembering the directions to his new home, surgeons found that he was still able to perform previous skills which is part of the procedural memory. They did find that HM's episodic memory, for past events and semantic memory for knowledge were more affected than the procedural memory.
Laboratory Experiments- scientific and reliable as it is possible to have great control over variables in this setting. Fails to tell us much about the real word, low ecological validity.
Field Experiments- take place within a natural situation and have more ecological validity, there is less control of other variables.
Natural Experiments - making observations of a naturally occurring situation. The experiment has little control of the variables and participants cannot be randomly assigned to conditions. High ecological validity but not reliable, as uncontrolled variables can affect the results.
Brain Imaging- can be carried out during a cognitive task, i.e. MRI scans have been used to show the blood flow in different brain areas for different types of memory tasks.
Case Studies
Milner et al (1957) case study of HM, a patient with severe epilepsy, his seizures were based in a brain structure called the hippocampus. Doctors decided in 1953 to surgically remove part of the brain from this area. The operation reduced seizures, but led to him suffering memory loss. Still able to form short term memories but unable to form new long term memories. He moved house and had difficulty remembering the directions to his new home, surgeons found that he was still able to perform previous skills which is part of the procedural memory. They did find that HM's episodic memory, for past events and semantic memory for knowledge were more affected than the procedural memory.
Key Terms
Cognitive, Relates to mental processes such as perception, memory and reasoning.
Cognitive neuroscience, An area of psychology dedicated to the underlying neural bases of cognitive functions.
Computer Model, Refers to the process of using computer analogies as a representation of human cognition.
Interference/interfering, means reaching a logical conclusion on the basis of evidence and reasoning.
Schema, A cognitive framework that helps to organise and interpret information in the brain. Schemas help an individual to make sense of new information.
Theoretical Models, In cognitive psychology, models are simplified, usually pictorial, representations of a particular mental process based on current research evidence.
Cognitive, Relates to mental processes such as perception, memory and reasoning.
Cognitive neuroscience, An area of psychology dedicated to the underlying neural bases of cognitive functions.
Computer Model, Refers to the process of using computer analogies as a representation of human cognition.
Interference/interfering, means reaching a logical conclusion on the basis of evidence and reasoning.
Schema, A cognitive framework that helps to organise and interpret information in the brain. Schemas help an individual to make sense of new information.
Theoretical Models, In cognitive psychology, models are simplified, usually pictorial, representations of a particular mental process based on current research evidence.
Behaviourist Approach
This approach rejected the vagueness of introspection, instead focusing on observable events. Behaviourists believed that much of human behaviour could be explained in terms of a basic form of learning known as conditioning, which involves the formation of learned associations between stimuli in the environment and an organism's responses.
Classical Conditioning
We are all born with a number of natural reflexes, these are made up of stimulus and its naturally associated response. When other stimuli are consistently associated with this stimulus then eventually they too will trigger the same response. The individual or animal is then described as being "classically conditioned". Pavlov (1972) is credited with discovering the process of classical conditioning. He was investigating the salivary reflex in dogs when he noticed that the dogs not only salivated when the food was put in their mouths but they also reacted to stimuli that coincided with the arrival of their food, such as their food bowl or the person who feeds them. This led him to explore the conditions in which this type of learning was most likely to occur. Natural stimulus in any reflex is referred to as the unconditioned stimulus (UCS) and the natural response to this stimulus is called the unconditioned response (UCR). A neutral stimulus (NS) which doesn't elicit from the UCR is presented shortly before the UCS. After many pairings of the NS & UCS this changes and the NS is now able to produce the same response in the absence of the UCS. The NS is now referred to as a conditioned stimulus (CS) and the response it produces is called a conditioned response (CR). Other important features Timing, if the NS cannot be used to predict the UCS then conditioning does not take place. Extinction, Pavlov discovered that unlike UCR, the CR does not become permanently established as a response. After a few presentations of the CS and the absence of the UCS it loses its ability to produce the CR. Spontaneous Recovery, following extinction if the CS and UCS are then paired together once again the link between them is made much more quickly. Stimulus Generalisation, Pavlov discovered that once an animal has been conditioned, they will also respond to other stimuli that are similar CS. |
Operant Conditioning
The basic idea behind the theory of operant conditioning is that organisms spontaneously produce different behaviours, and these behaviours produce consequences for that organism, some of which may be positive and some negative. Whether or not an organism repeats a particular behaviour depends on the nature of these consequences. Skinner developed a special cage called the "skinner box" in order to investigate operant conditioning in rats. the rat moves around the cage, and when it accidentally presses the lever a food pellet(the reinforcer) falls out. In no time at all the rat begins to press the lever regularly in order to obtain food. If the food pellets stop the rat presses the lever a few more times and then abandons it (extinction). Types of Reinforcement Reinforcement, means just what the word implies i.e. something in the environment that strengthens a particular behaviour and so makes it more likely to reoccur. Positive Reinforcement, occurs when behaviour produces a consequence that is satisfying or pleasant for the organism. Negative Reinforcers, work because they remove something aversive, unpleasant and so restore the organism to its "pre-aversive" state. Other Important features Schedules of reinforcement- although a continuous reinforcement schedule is most effective in establishing a particular response, a partial enforcement schedule is more efficient in maintaining that response and avoiding extinction. Punishment, refers to the circumstance whereby a behaviour is followed by a consequence that is undesirable or unpleasant for the organism. Reinforcement increases the likelihood of a behaviour recurring, whereas punishment decreases it. As with reinforcement, punishment can also be a positive or a negative. |
Key Terms
Behaviourist, people who believe that human behaviour can be explained in terms of conditioning, without the need to consider thoughts or feelings.
Classical Conditioning, when a neutral stimulus is consistently paired with an unconditioned stimulus so that it eventually takes on the properties of this stimulus and is able to produce a conditioned response.
Operant Conditioning, Learning through reinforcement or punishment. If a behaviour is followed by a desirable consequence then that behaviour is more likely to occur again in the future.
Punishment, Involves the application of an unpleasant consequence following a behaviour, with the result that the behaviour is less likely to occur again in the future.
Reinforcement, A term used in psychology to refer to anything that strengthens a response and increases the likelihood that it will occur again in the future.
Behaviourist, people who believe that human behaviour can be explained in terms of conditioning, without the need to consider thoughts or feelings.
Classical Conditioning, when a neutral stimulus is consistently paired with an unconditioned stimulus so that it eventually takes on the properties of this stimulus and is able to produce a conditioned response.
Operant Conditioning, Learning through reinforcement or punishment. If a behaviour is followed by a desirable consequence then that behaviour is more likely to occur again in the future.
Punishment, Involves the application of an unpleasant consequence following a behaviour, with the result that the behaviour is less likely to occur again in the future.
Reinforcement, A term used in psychology to refer to anything that strengthens a response and increases the likelihood that it will occur again in the future.
Biological Approach
This approach views human beings as biological organisms and so provides biological explanations of all aspects of psychological functioning. Biological psychologists are particularly interested in the genetic basis of behaviour, showing how some characteristics can be passed from generation to generation through the genes.
Genes, the mechanisms of heredity.
Heredity is the passing of characteristics from one generation to the next through the genes and is the reason why offspring take after their parents in terms of psychological characteristics.
Genotype- the genetic code that is written in the DNA of an individuals cells.
Phenotype- the physical appearance that results from this inherited information.
The influence of neurochemistry on behaviour
Neurotransmitters, when a nerve impulse reaches the end of one neuron, a chemical called a neurotransmitter is released. It travels from one neuron to the next across a junction called a synapse. There are many different types of neurotransmitter, some of which trigger the receiving neuron to send an impulse and some stop it from doing so. Those ones that trigger nerve impulses in the receiving neuron and stimulate brain into action are called excitatory neurotransmitters. Those that inhibit nerve impulses in order to calm the brain and balance mood are called inhibitory neurotransmitters. Dopamine is an excitatory neurotransmitters that is associated with our drive or motivation. Serotonin is an inhibitory transmitter adequate amounts of which are required to maintain a stable mood. Crockett et al (2008) found that when serotonin levels are low people tend to display increased aggression.
Neurons and the nervous system
The nervous system is comprised of several connected systems.
the central nervous system (CNS) comprises the brain and spinal cord.
The peripheral nervous system (PNS) comprises the somatic and autonomic nervous systems.
The nervous system carries messages from one part of the body to another using individual nerve cells known as neurons. Neurons transmit nerve impulses in the form of electric signals. Many aspects of behaviour are under neural control, including breathing, eating and sexual behaviour.
The Brain
The largest part of the brain is the cerebrum, making up about 85% of the total mass of the brain. The outer surface of the cerebrum is called the cerebral cortex, which is responsible for many of the higher code functions such as thought and language. The cerebrum is divided into two halves known as hemispheres, with each hemisphere further divided into four different parts known as lobes.
Genes, the mechanisms of heredity.
Heredity is the passing of characteristics from one generation to the next through the genes and is the reason why offspring take after their parents in terms of psychological characteristics.
Genotype- the genetic code that is written in the DNA of an individuals cells.
Phenotype- the physical appearance that results from this inherited information.
The influence of neurochemistry on behaviour
Neurotransmitters, when a nerve impulse reaches the end of one neuron, a chemical called a neurotransmitter is released. It travels from one neuron to the next across a junction called a synapse. There are many different types of neurotransmitter, some of which trigger the receiving neuron to send an impulse and some stop it from doing so. Those ones that trigger nerve impulses in the receiving neuron and stimulate brain into action are called excitatory neurotransmitters. Those that inhibit nerve impulses in order to calm the brain and balance mood are called inhibitory neurotransmitters. Dopamine is an excitatory neurotransmitters that is associated with our drive or motivation. Serotonin is an inhibitory transmitter adequate amounts of which are required to maintain a stable mood. Crockett et al (2008) found that when serotonin levels are low people tend to display increased aggression.
Neurons and the nervous system
The nervous system is comprised of several connected systems.
the central nervous system (CNS) comprises the brain and spinal cord.
The peripheral nervous system (PNS) comprises the somatic and autonomic nervous systems.
The nervous system carries messages from one part of the body to another using individual nerve cells known as neurons. Neurons transmit nerve impulses in the form of electric signals. Many aspects of behaviour are under neural control, including breathing, eating and sexual behaviour.
The Brain
The largest part of the brain is the cerebrum, making up about 85% of the total mass of the brain. The outer surface of the cerebrum is called the cerebral cortex, which is responsible for many of the higher code functions such as thought and language. The cerebrum is divided into two halves known as hemispheres, with each hemisphere further divided into four different parts known as lobes.
Hormones
Hormones are chemicals that are produced by endocrine glands such as the pituitary gland, which together make up the endocrine system. In response to a signal from the brain, hormones are secreted directly into the blood stream by the endocrine glands, where they travel to their "target cells" and exert their influence by stimulating receptors on the surface or inside cells. The presence of hormone causes a physiological reaction in the cell, altering its activity.
Carre et al (2006) studied a Canadian ice hockey team over the course of a season and found evidence of a surge of the hormone testosterone whenever the team played in their home town. This suggested that the hormone energised the players to defend their home territory.
Strengths
The importance of the scientific method.
Applications of the biological approach.
Limitations
The biological approach is reductionist.
Problems for evolutionary explanations of behaviour.
Key Terms
Biological Approach, view humans as biological organisms and so provides biological explanations for all aspects of psychological functioning.
Evolution, Refers to the change over successive generations of the genetic make up of a particular population. The central proposition of an evolutionary perspective is that the genotype of a population is changeable rather than fixed, and that this change is likely to be caused by a process of natural selection.
Gene, A part of the chromosome of an organism that carries information in the form of DNA.
Genotype, the genetic make up of an individual. The genotype is a collection of inherited genetic material that is passed from generation to generation.
Natural Selection, The process by which inherited characteristics that enhance an individuals reproductive success (fitness) are passed onto the next generation, and so become more widespread in the population over time.
Neurochemistry, The study of chemical and neural processes associated with the nervous system.
Phenotype, The observable characteristics of an individual. This is a consequence of the interaction of the genotype with the environment.
Hormones are chemicals that are produced by endocrine glands such as the pituitary gland, which together make up the endocrine system. In response to a signal from the brain, hormones are secreted directly into the blood stream by the endocrine glands, where they travel to their "target cells" and exert their influence by stimulating receptors on the surface or inside cells. The presence of hormone causes a physiological reaction in the cell, altering its activity.
Carre et al (2006) studied a Canadian ice hockey team over the course of a season and found evidence of a surge of the hormone testosterone whenever the team played in their home town. This suggested that the hormone energised the players to defend their home territory.
Strengths
The importance of the scientific method.
Applications of the biological approach.
Limitations
The biological approach is reductionist.
Problems for evolutionary explanations of behaviour.
Key Terms
Biological Approach, view humans as biological organisms and so provides biological explanations for all aspects of psychological functioning.
Evolution, Refers to the change over successive generations of the genetic make up of a particular population. The central proposition of an evolutionary perspective is that the genotype of a population is changeable rather than fixed, and that this change is likely to be caused by a process of natural selection.
Gene, A part of the chromosome of an organism that carries information in the form of DNA.
Genotype, the genetic make up of an individual. The genotype is a collection of inherited genetic material that is passed from generation to generation.
Natural Selection, The process by which inherited characteristics that enhance an individuals reproductive success (fitness) are passed onto the next generation, and so become more widespread in the population over time.
Neurochemistry, The study of chemical and neural processes associated with the nervous system.
Phenotype, The observable characteristics of an individual. This is a consequence of the interaction of the genotype with the environment.